CAFE

Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) is the sales weighted average fuel economy, expressed in miles per gallon (mpg), of a manufacturer's fleet of passenger cars or light trucks with a gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR) of 8,500 lbs. or less, manufactured for sale in the United States, for any given model year. Fuel economy is defined as the average mileage traveled by an automobile per gallon of gasoline (or equivalent amount of other fuel) consumed as measured in accordance with the testing and evaluation protocol set forth by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).

The Secretary of Transportation has delegated authority to establish CAFE standards to the Administrator of the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA). NHTSA is responsible for establishing and amending the CAFE standards; promulgating regulations concerning CAFE procedures, definitions and reports; considering petitions for exemption from standards for low volume manufacturers and establishing unique standards for them; enforcing fuel economy standards and regulations; responding to petitions concerning domestic production by foreign manufacturers and all other aspects of CAFE, including the classification of vehicle lines as either cars or trucks; collecting, recording and cataloging Pre- and Mid-model year reports; adjudicating carry back credit plans; and providing program incentives such as credits for alternative fueled vehicle lines.

EPA is responsible for calculating the average fuel economy for each manufacturer. CAFE certification is done either one of two ways:

1) The manufacturer provides its own fuel economy test data,
2) the EPA will obtain a vehicle and test it in its Office of Transportation & Air Quality facility in Ann Arbor, MI.

EPA will do actual tests on typically about 30% of the existing vehicle lines, using the same laboratory test that they use to measure exhaust emissions. The entire certification test procedure, including the vehicle test preparation, the actual running of the test on the dynamometer, the recording of the data, etc.

Congress specified that CAFE standards must be set at the "maximum feasible level". Congress provided that the Department's determinations of maximum feasible level be made in consideration of four factors:

(1) Technological feasibility;
(2) Economic practicability;
(3) Effect of other standards on fuel economy; and
(4) Need of the nation to conserve energy

Manufacturers can earn CAFE "credits" to offset deficiencies in their CAFE performances. Specifically, when the average fuel economy of either the passenger car or light truck fleet for a particular model year exceeds the established standard, the manufacturer earns credits. The amount of credit a manufacturer earns is determined by multiplying the tenths of a mile per gallon that the manufacturer exceeded the CAFE standard in that model year by the amount of vehicles they manufactured in that model year. These credits can be applied to any three consecutive model years immediately prior to or subsequent to the model year in which the credits are earned. The credits earned and applied to the model years prior to the model year for which the credits are earned are termed "carry back" credits, while those applied to model years subsequent to the model year in which the credits are earned are known as "carry forward" credits. Failure to exercise carry forward credits within the three years immediately following the year in which they are earned will result in the forfeiture of those credits. Credits cannot be passed between manufacturers or between fleets, e.g., from domestic passenger cars to light trucks.

Authority to establish vehicle classifications for the purposes of calculating CAFE was delegated to NHTSA. Specifically, the definitions are as follows:

1. Passenger Car – any 4-wheel vehicle not designed for off-road use that is manufactured primarily for use in transporting 10 people or less.

2. Truck – A vehicle can be classified as a truck if it meets one of the following criteria:

• It is 4-wheel drive or it is rated at 6,000 pounds gross vehicle weight AND has at least four of the following characteristics:

1. Approach angle of not less than 28 degrees
2. Breakover angle of not less than 14 degrees
3. Departure angle of not less than 20 degrees
4. Running clearance of not less than 20 centimeters
5. Front and read axle clearances of not less than 18 centimeters each

• It can perform at least one of the following functions:

1. Transport more than 10 people;
2. Provide temporary living quarters;
3. Transport property in an open bed;
4. Permit greater cargo-carrying capacity than passenger-carrying volume;
5. Can be converted to an open bed vehicle by removal of rear seats to form a flat continuous floor with the use of simple tools.

Tips for greener motoring

Your driving habits, the type of vehicle you drive and the conditions under which you drive will affect your vehicle's environmental performance. Follow these tips for greener driving.

Minimize your vehicle use :
Think about your travel needs prior to your travel. Planned travel decisions will result in fewer trips and more efficient/cheaper travel than unplanned decisions made 'on the go'. Some travel planning tips:

• Plan to do a number of errands in one trip rather than several trips and save both time and fuel (for the first couple of minutes of a car trip the engine is cold and this results in an increase in fuel consumption per kilometer).
• Patronize shops near to you whenever possible to reduce the distances you travel by car. Walk or cycle to your local shops if you can.
• Avoid peak-hour traffic whenever possible.
• Use alternative transport, eg. public transport (bus, train, tram or ferry), walking or cycling. These alternative methods of travel are often cheaper, and may provide other benefits including increased fitness.

Drive in high gear :
The engine runs most efficiently between around 1,500 and 2,500 rpm (lower in diesels). To maintain these low revs you should change up through the gears as soon as practical and before the revs reach 2,500 rpm. Automatic transmissions will shift up more quickly and smoothly if you ease back slightly on the accelerator once the car gathers momentum.

Drive smoothly - avoid unnecessary acceleration :
Drive at a good distance from the car in front so you can anticipate and travel with the flow of traffic. You will be able to see such things as traffic lights changing or cars turning and minimise your fuel use through braking and accelerating back up to full speed.

Minimize fuel wasted in idling :
Minimize fuel wasted in idling by stopping the engine whenever your car is stopped or held up for an extended period of time. By having the engine switched off, even for a short period, you will save more fuel than is lost from the burst of fuel involved in restarting the engine. The net increased wear and tear from this practice is negligible.

Speed kills economy :
High speeds result in high fuel consumption. At 110 km/h your car can use up to 25% more fuel than it would cruising at 90 km/h.

Minimize aerodynamic drag :
Additional parts on the exterior of a vehicle such as roof racks and spoilers, or having the window open, increases air resistance and fuel consumption, in some cases by over 20%.

Look after your vehicle's tyres :
Inflate your vehicle's tyres to the highest pressure recommended by the tyre manufacturer and make sure your wheels are properly aligned (remember to keep your spare tire inflated as well). Looking after your tyres will not only reduce your fuel consumption it will also extend tyre life and improve handling.

Use air conditioning sparingly :
Air conditioners can use extra fuel when operating. However, at speeds of over 80 km/h, the use of air conditioning is better for fuel consumption than an open window.

Travel light :
Don't carry more people or cargo than you have to. The more a vehicle carries the more fuel it uses; an extra 50kg of weight can increase your fuel bill by around 2%.
Service your vehicle regularly

Keeping your vehicle well tuned will minimize its environmental impact.

The Crash Tests and Dummies

Road traffic accidents takes lives of more than one million people a year, injuring another thirty-eight million (5 million of them seriously). The death rate of the world's roadways makes driving the number one cause of injury and death for young people ages 15 to 44 years.

How safe is that a used or a new automobile you are thinking of purchasing? With the inventions of the airbags and crash testing, the numbers of citizens injured and killed by vehicles has decreased in many nations.

A crash test is a form of destructive testing usually performed in order to ensure safe design standards in Crash worthiness and crash compatibility for automobiles or related components.

The Crash tests are done under very careful safety and scientific standards. Every crash test is very costly so the maximum amount of data must be got from each and every test. Typically, this requires the usage of high-speed data-acquisition, at least one accelerometer and crash test dummies.

Two types of crash tests are been performed on each automobile – one is an offset frontal test and the other is side impact test. These tests suggest two of the most common crashes that occur on our roads.

Dummies are used to calculate the level of injury that would affect the front seat occupants wearing the safety belts in these crashes.

The crash-rating dummy represents an average-sized adult is been placed in the driver seat and rear passenger seats and secured with the vehicle's seat belts.

The mandatory standard for crash tests is to:

• Reduce the level of risk to drivers, passengers and public by preventing supply of dummies that do not meet key safety requirements.
• Reduce the incidence of serious injury associated with poor quality products.
• Give consumers confidence that dummies available in the market have
• a reasonable level of safety.
• Provide a framework for industry to determine appropriate levels of safety for dummies.